Editor’s Note: Annually.Mining Engineering features Industrial Minerals Review.There are several people who have invested a lot of time developing the material for this issue, while also doing their own work.Thanks to the Editors of the Annual Review of Industrial Minerals, the Chair and Vice Chair of the Technical Committee of the Industrial Minerals and Aggregates Division, and the authors of the individual commodity profiles.
Rajesh Raitani is an SME member of Cytec Industries Inc. and chairs the Technical Committee for the Industrial Minerals and Aggregates Division.
Their help made possible this July’s Industrial Minerals issue.On behalf of my readers, the editors thank them.
Four companies – HC Spinks Clay Co., Inc., Imerys.Old Hickory Clay Co. and Unimin Corp. – Mined ball clay in four states in 2013.According to preliminary data, production is 1 metric ton (1.1 million short tons) with an estimated value of $47 million.Production increased 3 percent from 973 carats (1.1 million short tons) in 2012, valued at $45.1 million.Tennessee is the leading producer, accounting for 64% of domestic production, followed by Texas.Mississippi and Kentucky.About 67% of the total ball clay production is air flotation, 22% is coarse or crushed clay, and 11% is water slurry.
In 2013, domestic ball clay producers sold clay to the following markets: ceramic floor and wall tiles (44%); exports (21%); sanitary ware (18%); miscellaneous ceramics (9%); by end use in 2012 Mode and current market, fillers, extenders and binders and unspecified uses (4% each).Other markets account for less than 1% of the remaining ball clay sold or used.Sales reported for the manufacture of fiberglass or most filler, filler and binder applications are likely to be primarily kaolin clay mined or purchased by ball clay producers.
According to a preliminary survey of domestic ball clay producers, the average price of domestic ball clay was around US$47/t ($43/t) in 2013, compared to US$46/t ($42/t) in 2012.The unit prices of export and import ball clay were $126/t ($114/st) and $373/t ($338/st) respectively in 2013, compared to $62/t ($56/st) and $314/t ($285/st) in 2013 ) in 2012, respectively.The unit price of most bulk exports increased in 2013, and shipments of low-tonnage, high-value exports doubled in 2013 compared to 2012, resulting in average exports doubling in value.Two low-tonnage, high-value shipments in 2013 accounted for the increase in import value.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 4,681 tons (516 tons) of ball clay were imported in 2013, valued at $174,000, compared to 436 tons (481 tons) worth $137,000 in 2012.The bulk of the ball clay was imported from the United Kingdom. The U.S. Census Bureau reported that exports in 2013 were 52.2 carats (57,500 short tons) worth $6.6 million, compared with 74 carats (81.600 tons) in 2012, Valued at $4.58 million.The main destinations for exported ball clay are descending, Belgium, major European transshipment centers, Venezuela and Nicaragua.These three countries capture 58 percent of U.S. ball clay exports.U.S. producers typically report two to three times as many exports as the U.S. Census Bureau.According to import trade statistics published by the Mexican Ministry of Economy, exports of ball clay of considerable tonnage shipped from the United States to Mexico can be classified as kaolin.
The outlook for the ball clay industry is an increase in sales as the U.S. economy continues to recover from the recession.In 2013, commercial construction and residential construction activities were critical to ball clay sales due to their use in the manufacture of ceramic tiles and sanitary ware.The U.S. Census Bureau reported 923,000 private housing unit starts in 2013, compared with 781,000 starts in 2012, an 18 percent increase.The value of residential and non-residential buildings completed in 2013 increased 5 percent to $898 billion from $857 billion in 2012.In addition, foreclosure issues are being resolved in many parts of the United States, reducing the number of vacant homes on the market.Despite these improvements, housing starts are still below pre-recession levels.
Domestic sales of ball clay are also affected by imports of ball clay-based products such as tiles and sanitary ware.In 2013, tile imports fell from $62.1 million on 5.86 square meters (63.1 million square feet) in 2012 to 5.58 square meters (60.1 million square feet) worth $64.7 million.Main sources of tiles according to Harmonized Tariff Schedule code 6907.10.00, 6908.10.10, 6908.10.20, 6908.10.50 In descending order of volume, China (22%); Mexico (21%); Italy and Turkey (10% each) ; Brazil (7%); Colombia, Peru and Spain (5% each).Imports of sanitary ware increased from 25.2 million in 2012 to 29.7 million in 2013.China accounted for 14.7 million (49%) of U.S. sanitaryware imports in 2013, and Mexico 11.6 million (39%).Imports of ceramic tiles and sanitary ware Ball clay producers from Mexico pay less attention to domestic ball clay producers than those from China, as U.S. producers are the main ball clay suppliers to the Mexican ceramic industry.The increase in construction activity suggests that the growth of domestic ball clay sales in 2014 may be about the same as in 2013.*
Almost all bauxite consumed in the United States is imported.Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia produce small amounts of bauxite and bauxite clay for non-metallurgical uses.
Metallurgical grade bauxite (coarse dry) imports totalled 9.8 metric tonnes (10.1 million standard tonnes) in 2013, a 5% decrease from 2012 imports.Jamaica (48%).Guinea (26%) and Brazil (25%) were the top suppliers to the US in 2013.In 2013, 131-carat (144,400 short tons) refractory grade calcined bauxite was imported, an increase of 58% year-on-year.
Imports of refractory grade calcined bauxite increased compared to 2012, leading to replenishment of inventories as exports of bauxite-based refractory products decreased compared to 2012.Domestic steel production, which is the main use of bauxite-based refractory products, fell by about 2% in 2013, compared to 2012 production.China (49%) and Guyana (44%) are the main sources of U.S. refractory-grade calcined bauxite imports.
Imports of non-refractory grade calcined bauxite totalled 455 carats (501,500 short tons) in 2013, a 40% increase over 2012 imports.The growth was attributed to the increased use of bauxite in cement, the oil industry as a proppant for hydraulic fracturing, and steel manufacturers.Guyana (38%), Australia (28%) and Brazil (20%) were the main sources.
In 2013, the United States exported 9-carat (9,900 st) refractory grade calcined bauxite, a 40% increase over 2012 exports, with Canada (72%) and Mexico (7%) the main destinations.In 2013, the United States exported a negligible amount of non-refractory grade calcined bauxite, compared with approximately 13 kilotons (14,300 short tons) in 2012.Coarse dry bauxite exports totalled nearly 4,000 tonnes (4,400 short tons), a 59% decrease from 2012 exports, with Canada (82%) the main destination.
Domestic alumina production was estimated at 4.1 metric tons (4.6 million short tons) in 2013, down 7% from 2012.The decline was due to lower production at Ormet Corp.’s 540 t/y (595,000 st) Burnside, Los Angeles refinery.Two-thirds of its capacity was shut down in August and the remaining one-third in October.The refinery was sold to Almatis GmbH and restarted in mid-December.
Total alumina imports in 2013 were 2.05 metric tons (2.26 million standard tons), an 8% increase over 2012 alumina imports.Australia (37%), Suriname (35%) and Brazil (12%) were the main sources.Total alumina exports in 2013 were 2.25 metric tons (2.48 million standard tons), a 27% increase over 2012 exports.Among them, Canada (35%), Egypt (17%) and Iceland (13%) are the main destinations.
Total domestic bauxite consumption (on a crude dry equivalent basis) in 2013 was estimated at 9.8 mt (10.1 million standard tons), 2% higher than in 2012.Of this, approximately 8.8 metric tons (9.1 million standard tons) was used to produce alumina.6% lower than the previous year.Other uses of bauxite include the manufacture of abrasives, cement, chemicals and refractories, as well as in the oil industry, steel production and water treatment.
The total domestic alumina consumption of the aluminum industry in 2013 was 3.89 metric tons (4.29 million standard tons), a decrease of 6% from 2012.Alumina consumed by other industries in the US was approximately 490 kilotons (540,000 standard tons) in 2013, a 16% decrease from the 2012 amount.Other uses of alumina include abrasives, cement, ceramics and chemicals.
Prices for imported and exported bauxite vary by source, destination and grade.Unit prices for imported refractory grade calcined bauxite from major sources in 2013 were $813/t ($737/st) from Brazil (up 5%) and $480/t ($435/st) from China (down slightly) and $441 It ($400/st) from Guyana (down slightly).
Prices for non-refractory grade calcined bauxite imported from major sources ranged from $56/t ($51/st) in Australia (down 20%) to $65/t ($59/st) in Greece (up 12%) in 2013 .The average price of imported rough dry bauxite in 2013 was $30/t ($27/st), 7% higher than in 2012.The average price of imported alumina in 2013 was $396/t ($359/st), 3% lower than in 2012 2012. The average price of alumina exported from the US fell by 11% to $400 in 2013 compared to 2012 prices /t ($363/st).
Aluminum prices continued in 2013 until the first quarter of 2014.Low aluminum prices and high electricity costs are cited as the reasons for the shutdown of one domestic primary aluminum smelter in 2013 and the announcement of the closure of another primary aluminum smelter in the first quarter of 2014.New Energy At the end of 2013 and the beginning of 2014, the owners of three primary aluminum smelters and power suppliers reached power supply agreements.However, the owners of two other smelters are trying to negotiate power deals to lower electricity prices.
Although aluminium prices have stabilized in the first quarter of 2014, alumina demand will depend on new power supply agreements with some smelters.While US natural gas prices have continued to rise over the past year, relatively low prices are expected to continue to provide cost advantages to domestic alumina refiners in 2014.
Imports of refractory-grade calcined bauxite are expected to depend on steel production, but replacement of steel with aluminum by automakers to improve fuel efficiency could reduce demand for steel and refractory products for steelmaking.The consumption of non-refractory grade calcined bauxite is expected to increase in 2014 as the petroleum industry further uses it for abrasives, cement and hydraulic fracturing.*
In 2013, the bentonite industry remained unchanged from 2012.Total U.S. production and sales were 4.95 metric tons (5.4 million metric tons), compared to 4.98 metric tons (5.5 million metric tons) in 2012.The production of expanded bentonite is dominated by Wyoming, followed by Utah and Montana.Texas.california.Oregon.Nevada and Colorado.By 2011, the recovery from the US and world recession (2007-2009) appeared to be largely complete.However, housing production and related bentonite construction uses are finally starting to recover.In North America (US and Canada), swollen sodium bentonite dominates the non-swollen calcium bentonite, accounting for over 97% of the overall bentonite market.Non-expanded bentonite production occurs in Alabama, Mississippi, Arizona, California and Nevada.The main uses of non-expanding bentonite are foundry sand binders, water treatment and filtration.
Worldwide, the main producer of sodium activated bentonite is Greece.China, Egypt and India.AMCOL (formerly American Colloid Co.) remains the leading sodium bentonite producer with about 40% market share, while BPM Minerals LLC (a Halliburton subsidiary) has about 30% US market share.Other major sodium bentonite producers are MI-LLC, Black Hills Bentonite and Wyo-Ben.No new bentonite producers started construction in 2013.Wyo-Ben Inc. opened a new mine near Thermopolis, Wyoming.The deposit’s reserves are expected to last at least 10 to 20 years.Raw material costs remained stable, while truck load rates were unchanged in 2013.
Drilling-grade bentonite for oil and gas drilling and recovery was the largest use of expanded bentonite in 2013, producing approximately 1.15 metric tons (1.26 million short tons).The number of active rigs continued to increase in 2013, confirming the return of oil and gas drilling.In particular, horizontal drilling for shale production is a major application of bentonite.
The caked pet waste absorbent market is the second largest market for granular expanded bentonite.Although the hordes of pet litter reached 1.24 metric tons (1.36 million metric tons) in 2005, it has fluctuated between 1.05 and 1.08 metric tons (1.15 and 1.19 million metric tons) over the years, with a market of about 1.05 metric tons (1.15 million metric tons) in 2013 mt).
Iron ore pellets for expanded bentonite were the third largest market, growing to 550 kilotons (606.000 short tons) in 2013 as demand for steel increased for U.S. auto and heavy equipment production.
Since 2011, the average amount of expanded bentonite used as a binder in foundry sand for steel and other metals exceeds 500 carats (550,000 short tons).The invention of new products has not significantly impacted these four large granular and powdered expanded bentonite markets.
The market for bentonite for civil engineering applications, classified separately from 2005, was 175 carats (192,000 short tons), indicating that the market began to recover from the recession of 2008.The waterproofing and sealing bentonite market continued to grow with the construction industry following the US recession, reaching 150 carats (165,000 short tons) in 2013.The market for other small expanded bentonites for adhesives, animal feed, fillers and fillers, and other applications has generally not recovered from the 2008 recession.
A small segment of the bentonite market is specialized in beverage and wine clarification and organoclay products.AMCOL, Southern Clay Products, Sud Chemie and Elementis Specialties Inc. are pursuing the bentonite nanocomposite market.Elementis expanded its expanded hectorite plant in Newbury Springs, Calif., over a multi-year period, doubling its previous capacity and making it more energy efficient.Elementis continues to develop lower cost organoclay products such as Bentone 910, Bentone 920 and Bentone 990 for oil-based drilling fluids.
Since the global recession in 2008, the exchange rate of the U.S. dollar has helped to swell bentonite exports.In 2013, domestic bentonite producers reported exports of 950 carats (1.05 million short tons) of bentonite for drilling mud, foundry sand binders and other miscellaneous markets.A small amount of bentonite was imported from Canada.2013.1 Mexico and Greece
Bismuth is a heavier element that is chemically related to antimony.It is a by-product of lead and tungsten extraction, and to a lesser extent copper and tin.Antimony is a lighter chemical element.It is a by-product of the extraction of metals such as lead, silver and gold.The main use of bismuth and antimony is as a compound.
Bismuth and antimony compounds and related non-metallic uses account for most of the consumption of these chemical elements.Rarely used as a metal or alloy.
The largest end-use group for bismuth is the chemical group, which includes pharmaceuticals such as Pepto Bismol (bismuth subsalicylate), eye cosmetics with a pearlescent effect (bismuth oxychloride), catalysts, and other chemical uses such as paints (Bismuth Vanadate Yellow).
The next most important end-use group for bismuth is the metallurgical additive group, whose composition prevents the crystallization of graphite from carbon supersaturated molten steel, promotes free machining of steel, copper and aluminum, and promotes uniform coating in galvanizing.For all applications of this additive group, bismuth does not act as an alloying agent, but rather acts as a catalyst that prevents, promotes or produces certain reactions or properties.Steel needs only 0.1% bismuth or selenium for good machinability.Compared to these end-use groups, the bismuth alloy group accounts for only a small amount of bismuth and is used in fusible alloys, other low melting point alloys, and ammunition.
The largest use of antimony is as a flame retardant, mainly in the treatment of plastics, adhesives and textiles.Antimony oxide has a special role as a gas-phase free radical quencher in flame retardants, in various major halogenated materials used as flame retardants.
Another class of non-metallic products is mainly used in pigments and glass (including ceramics).Antimony oxide in most glasses and ceramics acts as an opacifier, but antimony in specialty glasses can clarify them.The antimony lead and alloy group consists primarily of antimony lead used in gasoline-powered automotive batteries.
Recyclability ranges from nearly impossible (bismuth in stomach medicines and cosmetics because it is completely dispersed) to reduced difficulty, such as antimony in flame retardants, metallurgical additives and bismuth in galvanizing, antimony in glass Bismuth in Additives and Catalysts. The easiest, easiest and cheapest way to recycle bismuth in fusible alloys and other alloys and antimony in battery antimony lead plates.
U.S. imports of bismuth metal remained largely unchanged in 2012 and 2013 at 1,699 tons (1,872 short tons) and 1,708 tons (1,882 short tons).Antimony oxide, the most imported by volume, was 20.7 carats (22,800 short tons) (total) in 2012 and 21.9 carats (24,100 tons) in 2013, a slight increase.Two months of 2014 data suggest that this pattern is continuing.The United States Geological Survey (USGS) no longer publishes its quarterly bismuth consumption survey.
The 2011 (latest published) annual end-use total for bismuth consumption in the United States was 222 tons (245 tons) for the metallurgical additive group and 54 tons (59 tons) for bismuth alloys.The balance is mainly for chemicals, 6681 (736 st).
USGS’ apparent antimony consumption in the United States was 21.7 carats (23,900 short tons) in 2012 and 24 carats (26,500 short tons) in 2013.
In the absence of most data, the 2013 results for bismuth were little changed.For antimony, examining limited data, consumption in 2013 should be around 10% higher than in 2012.In 2014, bismuth seems likely to remain unchanged and antimony to decline slightly.
Four minerals account for 90 percent of the borates used by industry worldwide—sodium borate, calcium tin, and potassium; calcium borate, duomolite; and calcium sodium borate, sodalite.Borax is a white crystalline substance chemically known as sodium tetraborate decahydrate, which occurs naturally in the mineral tin.Boric acid is a colorless, crystalline solid sold in technical, state prescription and special quality grades in granular or powder form, most often as anhydrous boric acid.Borate deposits are associated with volcanic activity and arid climates, with the largest economically viable deposits in the US Mojave Desert near boron.CA, Alpine Belt of South Asia, Andean Belt of South America.The quality of a resource or reserve is usually measured in terms of its boron trioxide (B,0,) equivalent content.
2013 U.S. production of boron minerals and compounds increased slightly from 2012; totals are retained to avoid disclosure of company-proprietary data.Two companies in Southern California produce boron minerals, primarily sodium borate.Rio Tinto Borax, a wholly owned subsidiary of UK-based Rio Tinto Minerals pic, extracts core rock and tin-calcium through open pit mining methods at its operations in Boron, California.These minerals are processed into boric acid or sodium borate products at refineries near the mine and shipped by rail or truck to customers in North America or sold internationally through the Port of Los Angeles.Specialty borates, such as agricultural, wood preservative and flame retardant products, are produced in Wilmington, CA, in Borax.plant.Searles Valley Minerals, Inc. (SVM) produces borax and boric acid from potassium and sodium borate brines at its Searles Lake facility near Trôna, California.At SVM’s Trôna and Westend plants, these brines are refined into anhydrous, decahydrate and borax pentahydrate.
Boron minerals and chemicals are primarily consumed in the north central and eastern United States.The estimated distribution patterns for boron compounds consumed in the United States in 2013 were glass and ceramics, 80%; soaps, detergents, and bleaches, 4%; agriculture, 4%; enamels and glazes, 3% and other uses, 9%.Boron is used in glass as an additive to reduce thermal expansion; improve strength, chemical resistance, and durability; and provide resistance to vibration, high temperature, and thermal shock.Insulation and textile fiberglass are the largest single use of borates globally.
Boron is the most widely used micronutrient in agriculture, mainly for promoting seed production.Boron fertilizers are mainly derived from borax and monetite, which can be delivered by spray or irrigation water because of their high water solubility.
U.S. sodium borate exports were 650 kt (716,000 st) in 2013, a slight increase from 646 kt (712,000 st) in 2012.Boric acid exports remained unchanged at 190 kt (209,000 st).The unit value of boric acid exports increased from $816/t ($740/st) in 2012 to $910/t ($740/st) in 2013.The main recipient of boric acid exports in 2013 was South Korea, accounting for 20 percent.Boric acid imports in 2013 were 53 kilotons (59,000 tonnes), about 4% lower than in 2012.About 64% of imported boric acid in 2013 came from Turkey.The unit value of boric acid imports in 2013 was $687/t ($623/st), up from $782/1 ($709/st) in 2012.
Turkey and the United States led the world in borate production in 2013.Excluding U.S. production, total world borate weight was estimated at 4.9 metric tons (5.4 million metric tons) in 2013, an 11 percent increase from 2012.
Argentina is a major producer of boron ore in South America.The recent increase in borate production in Argentina, especially boric acid, is largely due to increased demand for borates from the ceramic and glass industries in Asia and North America.